Nearsightedness: A Comprehensive Review of Myopia and its Impact on Vision
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.58445/rars.885Keywords:
Nearsightedness, Myopia, VisionAbstract
Myopia is a common ocular disorder that affects nearly 140 million people in the US. It causes difficulty in focusing on objects located at a far distance. The cause of myopia is multifactorial and only partially understood. There are several medical and surgical management options for myopia in adults, and only some of these apply to adolescents, even though the average onset of myopia is reported to range from 6-14 years old. In this literature review, we will review the current understanding of the causes, challenges, management options, and preventative measures of myopia in adults and adolescents and identify gaps for future research. The causes and management options for myopia for adults and children are well-researched, though gaps remain. The cause of myopia is multifactorial, with genetic and environmental components, though a thorough understanding of all causes has not been achieved. There are several challenges associated with living with myopia, including financial, social, and management-related challenges. Additionally, while non-surgical treatments such as orthokeratology (Ortho-K), contact lenses, glasses, and atropine eye drops are effective, they can be very costly and translate to a life-long financial burden. The same applies to surgical treatments such as refractive lens exchange (RLE), photorefractive keratectomy (PRK), and laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis (LASIK). Furthermore, there are currently no safe surgical treatments for adolescents due to their eyes being underdeveloped. More research is needed to thoroughly understand the causes of myopia and possible additional management options for adolescents. This work should include expert-conducted studies, studies on how to alleviate the effect of refractive surgery on growing eyes, and more studies on how to effectively reduce the acute repercussions of refractive surgery.
References
(1) New center tackles rapidly growing myopia prevalence. Ophthalmology. https://med.stanford.edu/ophthalmology/news-and-media/annualreport_2021/myopia.html?tab=proxy (accessed 2024-01-03).
(2) Saluja, G.; Kaur, K. Childhood Myopia and Ocular Development. In StatPearls; StatPearls Publishing: Treasure Island (FL), 2023.
(3) Eye Anatomy: Parts of the Eye and How We See. American Academy of Ophthalmology. https://www.aao.org/eye-health/anatomy/parts-of-eye (accessed 2023-11-10).
(4) Nearsightedness - Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/nearsightedness/symptoms-causes/syc-20375556 (accessed 2023-11-10).
(5) Myopia (Short-Sightedness): Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment. https://patient.info/eye-care/short-sight-myopia (accessed 2024-01-02).
(6) Cai, X.-B.; Shen, S.-R.; Chen, D.-F.; Zhang, Q.; Jin, Z.-B. An Overview of Myopia Genetics. Exp. Eye Res. 2019, 188, 107778. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exer.2019.107778.
(7) Is nearsightedness genetic? What causes myopia. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/is-nearsightedness-genetic (accessed 2023-11-10).
(8) Myopia. https://www.aoa.org/healthy-eyes/eye-and-vision-conditions/myopia?sso=y (accessed 2023-11-10).
(9) Wong, C. W.; Tsai, A.; Jonas, J. B.; Ohno-Matsui, K.; Chen, J.; Ang, M.; Ting, D. S. W. Digital Screen Time During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Risk for a Further Myopia Boom? Am. J. Ophthalmol. 2021, 223, 333–337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajo.2020.07.034.
(10) Morgan, I. G.; French, A. N.; Ashby, R. S.; Guo, X.; Ding, X.; He, M.; Rose, K. A. The Epidemics of Myopia: Aetiology and Prevention. Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 2018, 62, 134–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.preteyeres.2017.09.004.
(11) Rose, K. A.; Morgan, I. G.; Ip, J.; Kifley, A.; Huynh, S.; Smith, W.; Mitchell, P. Outdoor Activity Reduces the Prevalence of Myopia in Children. Ophthalmology 2008, 115 (8), 1279–1285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2007.12.019.
(12) Mutti, D. O.; Mitchell, G. L.; Moeschberger, M. L.; Jones, L. A.; Zadnik, K. Parental Myopia, Near Work, School Achievement, and Children’s Refractive Error. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2002, 43 (12), 3633–3640.
(13) The Consequences of Financial Myopia | News | The Emotional Investor | Financial Tools, Research. https://theemotionalinvestor.org/the-consequences-of-financial-myopia/ (accessed 2023-11-10).
(14) Chua, S. Y. L.; Foster, P. J. The Economic and Societal Impact of Myopia and High Myopia. In Updates on Myopia: A Clinical Perspective; Ang, M., Wong, T. Y., Eds.; Springer: Singapore, 2020; pp 53–63. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8491-2_3.
(15) Zheng, Y.-F.; Pan, C.-W.; Chay, J.; Wong, T. Y.; Finkelstein, E.; Saw, S.-M. The Economic Cost of Myopia in Adults Aged Over 40 Years in Singapore. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2013, 54 (12), 7532–7537. https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.13-12795.
(16) Agyekum, S.; Chan, P. P.; Zhang, Y.; Huo, Z.; Yip, B. H. K.; Ip, P.; Tham, C. C.; Chen, L. J.; Zhang, X. J.; Pang, C. P.; Yam, J. C. Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Myopia Management: A Systematic Review. Front. Public Health 2023, 11, 1093836. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1093836.
(17) Ma, Y.; Wen, Y.; Zhong, H.; Lin, S.; Liang, L.; Yang, Y.; Jiang, H.; Chen, J.; Huang, Y.; Ying, X.; Resnikoff, S.; Lu, L.; Zhu, J.; Xu, X.; He, X.; Zou, H. Healthcare Utilization and Economic Burden of Myopia in Urban China: A Nationwide Cost-of-Illness Study. J. Glob. Health 2022, 12, 11003. https://doi.org/10.7189/jogh.12.11003.
(18) Holy, C.; Kulkarni, K.; Brennan, N. A. Predicting Costs and Disability from the Myopia Epidemic – A Worldwide Economic and Social Model. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2019, 60 (9), 5466.
(19) Sankaridurg, P.; Tahhan, N.; Kandel, H.; Naduvilath, T.; Zou, H.; Frick, K. D.; Marmamula, S.; Friedman, D. S.; Lamoureux, E.; Keeffe, J.; Walline, J. J.; Fricke, T. R.; Kovai, V.; Resnikoff, S. IMI Impact of Myopia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2021, 62 (5), 2. https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.62.5.2.
(20) Jellesma, F. C. Do Glasses Change Children’s Perceptions? Effects of Eyeglasses on Peer- and Self-Perception. Eur. J. Dev. Psychol. 2013, 10 (4), 449–460. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2012.700199.
(21) Horwood, J.; Waylen, A.; Herrick, D.; Williams, C.; Wolke, D. Common Visual Defects and Peer Victimization in Children. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2005, 46 (4), 1177–1181. https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.04-0597.
(22) Barzeva, S. A.; Meeus, W. H. J.; Oldehinkel, A. J. Social Withdrawal in Adolescence and Early Adulthood: Measurement Issues, Normative Development, and Distinct Trajectories. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 2019, 47 (5), 865–879. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-018-0497-4.
(23) Wolke, D.; Lereya, S. T. Long-Term Effects of Bullying. Arch. Dis. Child. 2015, 100 (9), 879–885. https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2014-306667.
(24) Affairs (ASPA), A. S. for P. Consequences of Bullying. https://www.stopbullying.gov/resources/research-resources/consequences-of-bullying (accessed 2023-11-15).
(25) Armitage, R. Bullying in Children: Impact on Child Health. BMJ Paediatr. Open 2021, 5 (1), e000939. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjpo-2020-000939.
(26) Wolke, D.; Copeland, W. E.; Angold, A.; Costello, E. J. Impact of Bullying in Childhood on Adult Health, Wealth, Crime and Social Outcomes. Psychol. Sci. 2013, 24 (10), 1958–1970. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613481608.
(27) Why Children Do—and Don’t—Wear Their Eyeglasses. American Academy of Ophthalmology. https://www.aao.org/eyenet/article/why-children-do-and%20dont-wear-their-eyeglasses (accessed 2023-11-10).
(28) Health, C. for D. and R. Contact Lens Risks. FDA 2023.
(29) Lievens, C. W.; Cilimberg, K. C.; Moore, A. Contact Lens Care Tips for Patients: An Optometrist’s Perspective. Clin. Optom. 2017, 9, 113–121. https://doi.org/10.2147/OPTO.S139651.
(30) Cheng, K. H.; Leung, S. L.; Hoekman, H. W.; Beekhuis, W. H.; Mulder, P. G.; Geerards, A. J.; Kijlstra, A. Incidence of Contact-Lens-Associated Microbial Keratitis and Its Related Morbidity. Lancet Lond. Engl. 1999, 354 (9174), 181–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(98)09385-4.
(31) Dart, J. K. G.; Radford, C. F.; Minassian, D.; Verma, S.; Stapleton, F. Risk Factors for Microbial Keratitis with Contemporary Contact Lenses: A Case-Control Study. Ophthalmology 2008, 115 (10), 1647-1654.e3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2008.05.003.
(32) Robertson, D. M. The Effects of Silicone Hydrogel Lens Wear on the Corneal Epithelium and Risk for Microbial Keratitis. Eye Contact Lens 2013, 39 (1), 67–72. https://doi.org/10.1097/ICL.0b013e31827c5b73.
(33) The Relative Risk of Ulcerative Keratitis among Users of Daily-Wear and Extended-Wear Soft Contact Lenses | NEJM. https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJM198909213211201?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmed (accessed 2023-11-10).
(34) The Epidemiology of Microbial Keratitis With Silicone Hydrog... : Eye & Contact Lens. https://journals.lww.com/claojournal/abstract/2013/01000/the_epidemiology_of_microbial_keratitis_with.16.aspx (accessed 2023-11-10).
(35) Medicine, N. Myopia Symptoms. Northwestern Medicine. https://www.nm.org/conditions-and-care-areas/ophthalmology/myopia/symptoms (accessed 2023-11-10).
(36) Myopia (Nearsightedness): Causes, Symptoms &Treatment. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/8579-myopia-nearsightedness (accessed 2023-11-10).
(37) Retinal Detachment and High Myopia. CRSTG | Europe Edition. https://crstodayeurope.com/articles/2008-apr/0408_06-php/ (accessed 2023-11-15).
(38) Williams, K.; Hammond, C. High Myopia and Its Risks. Community Eye Health 2019, 32 (105), 5–6.
(39) Study Links Increases in RRD, Myopia Incidence. AJMC. https://www.ajmc.com/view/study-links-increases-in-rrd-myopia-incidence (accessed 2023-11-15).
(40) Low-Dose 0.01% Atropine Eye Drops vs Placebo for Myopia Control: A Randomized Clinical Trial | Optics and Refraction | JAMA Ophthalmology | JAMA Network. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaophthalmology/article-abstract/2807117 (accessed 2023-11-15).
(41) Lanca, C.; Pang, C. P.; Grzybowski, A. Effectiveness of Myopia Control Interventions: A Systematic Review of 12 Randomized Control Trials Published between 2019 and 2021. Front. Public Health 2023, 11, 1125000. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1125000.
(42) Li, F. F.; Yam, J. C. Low-Concentration Atropine Eye Drops for Myopia Progression. Asia-Pac. J. Ophthalmol. Phila. Pa 2019, 8 (5), 360–365. https://doi.org/10.1097/APO.0000000000000256.
(43) Atropine Eye Drops: Indications, Side Effects, Warnings. Drugs.com. https://www.drugs.com/cdi/atropine-eye-drops.html (accessed 2024-01-03).
(44) What Is Orthokeratology?. American Academy of Ophthalmology. https://www.aao.org/eye-health/glasses-contacts/what-is-orthokeratology (accessed 2023-11-10).
(45) Lee, Y.-C.; Wang, J.-H.; Chiu, C.-J. Effect of Orthokeratology on Myopia Progression: Twelve-Year Results of a Retrospective Cohort Study. BMC Ophthalmol. 2017, 17, 243. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12886-017-0639-4.
(46) Contact Lens Spectrum - A THREE-YEAR REAL-WORLD ORTHOKERATOLOGY PERSPECTIVE. Contact Lens Spectrum. https://www.clspectrum.com/issues/2023/march-2023/a-three-year-real-world-orthokeratology-perspectiv (accessed 2023-11-23).
(47) Cooper, J.; O’Connor, B.; Aller, T.; Dillehay, S. M.; Weibel, K.; Benoit, D. Reduction of Myopic Progression Using a Multifocal Soft Contact Lens: A Retrospective Cohort Study. Clin. Ophthalmol. Auckl. NZ 2022, 16, 2145–2155. https://doi.org/10.2147/OPTH.S370041.
(48) Malinowski, A.; Mrugacz, M.; Stopa, M.; Filipek, E.; Moniuszko-Malinowska, A.; Czupryna, P. A Clinical Study of the Impact of Soft Contact Lenses on the Progression of Myopia in Young Patients. Clin. Ophthalmol. Auckl. NZ 2022, 16, 51–62. https://doi.org/10.2147/OPTH.S338199.
(49) Hieda, O.; Nakamura, Y.; Hiraoka, T.; Kojima, M.; Oshika, T.; Sotozono, C. Clinical Study on the Effect of Multifocal Contact Lenses on Myopia Progression in Myopia School Children. Trials 2021, 22, 239. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-021-05197-6.
(50) Bao, J.; Huang, Y.; Li, X.; Yang, A.; Zhou, F.; Wu, J.; Wang, C.; Li, Y.; Lim, E. W.; Spiegel, D. P.; Drobe, B.; Chen, H. Spectacle Lenses With Aspherical Lenslets for Myopia Control vs Single-Vision Spectacle Lenses. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2022, 140 (5), 472–478. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2022.0401.
(51) Lam, C. S. Y.; Tang, W. C.; Tse, D. Y.; Lee, R. P. K.; Chun, R. K. M.; Hasegawa, K.; Qi, H.; Hatanaka, T.; To, C. H. Defocus Incorporated Multiple Segments (DIMS) Spectacle Lenses Slow Myopia Progression: A 2-Year Randomised Clinical Trial. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 2020, 104 (3), 363–368. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjophthalmol-2018-313739.
(52) Cheng, D.; Woo, G. C.; Drobe, B.; Schmid, K. L. Effect of Bifocal and Prismatic Bifocal Spectacles on Myopia Progression in Children: Three-Year Results of a Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2014, 132 (3), 258–264. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2013.7623.
(53) Rappon, J.; Neitz, J.; Neitz, M.; Chung, C.; Chalberg, T. W. TWO-YEAR EFFECTIVENESS OF A NOVEL MYOPIA MANAGEMENT SPECTACLE LENS WITH FULL-TIME WEARERS. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2022, 63 (7), 408.
(54) Sankaridurg, P.; Donovan, L.; Varnas, S.; Ho, A.; Chen, X.; Martinez, A.; Fisher, S.; Lin, Z.; Smith, E. L.; Ge, J.; Holden, B. Spectacle Lenses Designed to Reduce Progression of Myopia: 12-Month Results. Optom. Vis. Sci. Off. Publ. Am. Acad. Optom. 2010, 87 (9), 631–641. https://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0b013e3181ea19c7.
(55) Photorefractive Keratectomy (PRK) | Stanford Health Care. https://stanfordhealthcare.org/medical-treatments/l/laser-vision-correction/procedures/prk.html (accessed 2023-11-10).
(56) Moshirfar, M.; Villarreal, A.; Thomson, A. C.; West, W. B.; McCabe, S. E.; Quinonez Zanabria, E.; Graham, D. B.; Ronquillo, Y. C.; Hoopes, P. C. PRK Enhancement for Residual Refractive Error After Primary PRK: A Retrospective Study. Ophthalmol. Ther. 2021, 10 (1), 175–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40123-021-00331-8.
(57) Banning, C. S.; Loft, E.; Randleman, J.; Stulting, R. Visual Outcomes After Photorefractive Keratectomy. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2005, 46 (13), 4349.
(58) Alio, J. L.; Soria, F. A.; Abbouda, A.; Peña-García, P. Fifteen Years Follow-up of Photorefractive Keratectomy up to 10 D of Myopia: Outcomes and Analysis of the Refractive Regression. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 2016, 100 (5), 626–632. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjophthalmol-2014-306459.
(59) PRK effective and well-tolerated up to 16 years postop. https://www.healio.com/news/ophthalmology/20120716/prk-effective-and-well-tolerated-up-to-16-years-postop (accessed 2024-01-06).
(60) Spadea, L.; Giovannetti, F. Main Complications of Photorefractive Keratectomy and Their Management. Clin. Ophthalmol. Auckl. NZ 2019, 13, 2305–2315. https://doi.org/10.2147/OPTH.S233125.
(61) Complications From PRK: What Are They & How Common Are They? | NVISION Eye Centers. https://www.nvisioncenters.com/prk-laser-surgery/complications/ (accessed 2023-12-17).
(62) Corneal Ectasia: Causes & Symptoms. Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/25178-corneal-ectasia (accessed 2023-12-17).
(63) Randleman, J. B.; Stulting, R. D. Ectasia after Photorefractive Keratectomy. Ophthalmology 2007, 114 (2), 396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2006.09.008.
(64) Tabbara, K. F.; El-Sheikh, H. F.; Sharara, N. A.; Aabed, B. Corneal Haze among Blue Eyes and Brown Eyes after Photorefractive Keratectomy1. Ophthalmology 1999, 106 (11), 2210–2215. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(99)90507-9.
(65) Mulhern, M. G.; Foley-Nolan, A.; O’Keefe, M.; Condon, P. I. Topographical Analysis of Ablation Centration after Excimer Laser Photorefractive Keratectomy and Laser in Situ Keratomileusis for High Myopia. J. Cataract Refract. Surg. 1997, 23 (4), 488. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0886-3350(97)80204-0.
(66) Erie, J. C. Corneal Wound Healing after Photorefractive Keratectomy: A 3-Year Confocal Microscopy Study. Trans. Am. Ophthalmol. Soc. 2003, 101, 293–333.
(67) Hashmani, N.; Hashmani, S.; Ramesh, P.; Rajani, H.; Ahmed, J.; Kumar, J.; Kumar, A.; Jamali, M. A Comparison of Visual Outcomes and Patient Satisfaction Between Photorefractive Keratectomy and Femtosecond Laser-Assisted In Situ Keratomileusis. Cureus 9 (9), e1641. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.1641.
(68) Hofmeister, E. M.; Cason, J. B.; Murdoch, D. M.; Yau, I. W.; Wang, Y.; Parizadeh, D. D.; Janakiraman, D. P.; Kasthurirangan, S. Wavefront-Guided PRK Treatment of Myopia Using a Refractive Aberrometer. J. Cataract Refract. Surg. 2023, 49 (3), 292. https://doi.org/10.1097/j.jcrs.0000000000001083.
(69) Ben-Sira, A.; Loewenstein, A.; Lipshitz, I.; Levanon, D.; Lazar, M. Patient Satisfaction after 5.0-Mm Photorefractive Keratectomy for Myopia. J. Refract. Surg. Thorofare NJ 1995 1997, 13 (2), 129–134. https://doi.org/10.3928/1081-597X-19970301-08.
(70) Kates, M. M.; Tuli, S. What Is LASIK Eye Surgery? JAMA 2020, 324 (8), 815. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.1286.
(71) Chua, D.; Htoon, H. M.; Lim, L.; Chan, C. M.; Mehta, J. S.; Tan, D. T. H.; Rosman, M. Eighteen-Year Prospective Audit of LASIK Outcomes for Myopia in 53 731 Eyes. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 2019, 103 (9), 1228–1234. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjophthalmol-2018-312587.
(72) Joffe, S. N. The 25th Anniversary of Laser Vision Correction in the United States. Clin. Ophthalmol. Auckl. NZ 2021, 15, 1163–1172. https://doi.org/10.2147/OPTH.S299752.
(73) LASIK Success Rates in 2022: Statistics on Safety & Effectiveness. MyVision.org. https://myvision.org/lasik/success-rates/ (accessed 2023-11-10).
(74) Solomon, K. D.; Fernández de Castro, L. E.; Sandoval, H. P.; Biber, J. M.; Groat, B.; Neff, K. D.; Ying, M. S.; French, J. W.; Donnenfeld, E. D.; Lindstrom, R. L.; Joint LASIK Study Task Force. LASIK World Literature Review: Quality of Life and Patient Satisfaction. Ophthalmology 2009, 116 (4), 691–701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2008.12.037.
(75) LASIK Statistics - Safety and Success Rates in 2023. https://www.visioncenter.org/resources/lasik-statistics/ (accessed 2023-11-10).
(76) Yu, E. Y. W.; Leung, A.; Rao, S.; Lam, D. S. C. Effect of Laser in Situ Keratomileusis on Tear Stability. Ophthalmology 2000, 107 (12), 2131–2135. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(00)00388-2.
(77) Symptoms of dry eye and recurrent erosion syndrome after ref... : Journal of Cataract & Refractive Surgery. https://journals.lww.com/jcrs/abstract/2001/04000/symptoms_of_dry_eye_and_recurrent_erosion_syndrome.33.aspx (accessed 2023-12-05).
(78) Toda, I.; Asano-Kato, N.; Komai-Hori, Y.; Tsubota, K. Dry Eye after Laser in Situ Keratomileusis. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 2001, 132 (1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0002-9394(01)00959-x.
(79) Battat, L.; Macri, A.; Dursun, D.; Pflugfelder, S. C. Effects of Laser in Situ Keratomileusis on Tear Production, Clearance, and the Ocular Surface. Ophthalmology 2001, 108 (7), 1230–1235. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(01)00623-6.
(80) Yahalomi, T.; Achiron, A.; Arnon, R.; Stanescu, N.; Pikkel, J. Dry Eye Disease Following LASIK, PRK, and LASEK: An Observational Cross-Sectional Study. J. Clin. Med. 2023, 12 (11), 3761. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm12113761.
(81) Ortega-Usobiaga, J.; Llovet-Osuna, F.; Katz, T.; Djodeyre, M. R.; Druchkiv, V.; Bilbao-Calabuig, R.; Baviera, J. Comparison of 5468 Retreatments after Laser in Situ Keratomileusis by Lifting the Flap or Performing Photorefractive Keratectomy on the Flap. Arch. Soc. Espanola Oftalmol. 2018, 93 (2), 60–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oftal.2017.05.007.
(82) Flap lift and photorefractive keratectomy enhancements after... : Journal of Cataract & Refractive Surgery. https://journals.lww.com/jcrs/abstract/2015/11000/flap_lift_and_photorefractive_keratectomy.23.aspx (accessed 2023-11-23).
(83) Letko, E.; Price, M. O.; Price, F. W. Influence of Original Flap Creation Method on Incidence of Epithelial Ingrowth after LASIK Retreatment. J. Refract. Surg. Thorofare NJ 1995 2009, 25 (11), 1039–1041. https://doi.org/10.3928/1081597X-20090617-13.
(84) PRK vs. LASIK: Cost, Differences, Pros and Cons. All About Vision. https://www.allaboutvision.com/treatments-surgery/vision-surgery/prk-vs-lasik/ (accessed 2023-11-10).
(85) Outcomes of LASIK vs PRK enhancement in eyes with prior cata... : Journal of Cataract & Refractive Surgery. https://journals.lww.com/jcrs/Abstract/2023/01000/Outcomes_of_LASIK_vs_PRK_enhancement_in_eyes_with.12.aspx (accessed 2023-11-10).
(86) Intraocular Refractive Surgery - EyeWiki. https://eyewiki.aao.org/Intraocular_Refractive_Surgery (accessed 2023-11-10).
(87) Hasan, S.; Tripathy, K. Phakic Intraocular Lens Myopia. In StatPearls; StatPearls Publishing: Treasure Island (FL), 2023.
(88) Royo, M.; Jiménez, Á.; Martínez-Alberquilla, I.; Alfonso, J. F. Eight-Year Follow-up of Artiflex and Artiflex Toric Phakic Intraocular Lens. Eur. J. Ophthalmol. 2022, 32 (4), 2051–2058. https://doi.org/10.1177/11206721211035617.
(89) Refractive Lens Exchange: What To Expect. Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/treatments/24840-refractive-lens-exchange (accessed 2023-11-10).
(90) Yim, C. K.; Dave, A.; Strawn, A.; Chan, J.; Zhou, I.; Zhu, D. C. Visual Outcomes and Patient Satisfaction After Bilateral Refractive Lens Exchange with a Trifocal Intraocular Lens in Patients with Presbyopia. Ophthalmol. Ther. 2023, 12 (3), 1757–1773. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40123-023-00708-x.
(91) Schallhorn, S. C.; Teenan, D.; Venter, J. A.; Schallhorn, J. M.; Hettinger, K. A.; Hannan, S. J.; Pelouskova, M. Monovision LASIK Versus Presbyopia-Correcting IOLs: Comparison of Clinical and Patient-Reported Outcomes. J. Refract. Surg. 2017, 33 (11), 749–758. https://doi.org/10.3928/1081597X-20170721-03.
(92) Rodriguez, A.; Gutierrez, E.; Alvira, G. Complications of Clear Lens Extraction in Axial Myopia. Arch. Ophthalmol. 1987, 105 (11), 1522–1523. https://doi.org/10.1001/archopht.1987.01060110068033.
(93) Retinal detachment after cataract extraction and refractive... : Journal of Cataract & Refractive Surgery. https://journals.lww.com/jcrs/abstract/2003/01000/retinal_detachment_after_cataract_extraction_and.24.aspx (accessed 2023-11-23).
(94) Nearsightedness: Myopia Diagnosis and Treatment. American Academy of Ophthalmology. https://www.aao.org/eye-health/treatments/myopia-nearsightedness-treatment (accessed 2024-01-02).
(95) Baiyeroju, A.; Bowman, R.; Gilbert, C.; Taylor, D. Managing Eye Health in Young Children. Community Eye Health 2010, 23 (72), 4–11.
(96) When Does Myopia Typically Start?. All About Vision. https://www.allaboutvision.com/conditions/refractive-errors/when-does-myopia-start/ (accessed 2024-01-03).
(97) Nearsightedness (Myopia) | National Eye Institute. https://www.nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/eye-conditions-and-diseases/nearsightedness-myopia (accessed 2024-01-03).
(98) Communication, M. and. What Is Myopia, And Why Does It Affect So Many Children? Screen Time Is A Growing Concern | University of Utah Health. https://healthcare.utah.edu/healthfeed/2021/10/what-myopia-and-why-does-it-affect-so-many-children-screen-time-growing-concern (accessed 2024-01-03).
(99) Health, C. for D. and R. When Is LASIK Not for Me? FDA 2023.
(100) What Is Photorefractive Keratectomy (PRK)?. American Academy of Ophthalmology. https://www.aao.org/eye-health/treatments/photorefractive-keratectomy-prk (accessed 2023-12-17).
(101) Russo, A.; Boldini, A.; Romano, D.; Mazza, G.; Bignotti, S.; Morescalchi, F.; Semeraro, F. Myopia: Mechanisms and Strategies to Slow Down Its Progression. J. Ophthalmol. 2022, 2022, 1004977. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/1004977.
(102) Ha, J. J.; He, M. Preventing Myopia in East Asia. Community Eye Health 2019, 32 (105), 13–14.
(103) Wu, P.-C.; Chen, C.-T.; Lin, K.-K.; Sun, C.-C.; Kuo, C.-N.; Huang, H.-M.; Poon, Y.-C.; Yang, M.-L.; Chen, C.-Y.; Huang, J.-C.; Wu, P.-C.; Yang, I.-H.; Yu, H.-J.; Fang, P.-C.; Tsai, C.-L.; Chiou, S.-T.; Yang, Y.-H. Myopia Prevention and Outdoor Light Intensity in a School-Based Cluster Randomized Trial. Ophthalmology 2018, 125 (8), 1239–1250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2017.12.011.
(104) Ichhpujani, P.; Singh, R. B.; Foulsham, W.; Thakur, S.; Lamba, A. S. Visual Implications of Digital Device Usage in School Children: A Cross-Sectional Study. BMC Ophthalmol. 2019, 19, 76. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12886-019-1082-5.
(105) Grzybowski, A.; Kanclerz, P.; Tsubota, K.; Lanca, C.; Saw, S.-M. A Review on the Epidemiology of Myopia in School Children Worldwide. BMC Ophthalmol. 2020, 20, 27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12886-019-1220-0.
(106) The Dangers Of UV Radiation To Your Eyes. All About Vision. https://www.allaboutvision.com/sunglasses/spf.htm (accessed 2023-11-10).
Additional Files
Posted
Categories
License
Copyright (c) 2024 Sanjana Shresta
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.