Impact of Deforestation on Coastal Communities in the Philippines, Madagascar, Somalia, and Indonesia: Causes and Policy Recommendations
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.58445/rars.1475Keywords:
deforestation, environmental science, climate change, zoonotic spillover, mangroves, Philippines, Indonesia, Madagascar, SomaliaAbstract
The proposed research paper explores the crucial issue of deforestation among coastal communities of 4 LMICs. These LMICs include the Philippines, Madagascar, Somalia, and Indonesia. The countries were chosen based on the following criteria: the prominence of mangroves in their ecosystems, the expansion of agriculture and housing in their forests, and their prominence in creating CO2 emissions. Deforestation has a major impact on climate change and biodiversity among these communities, leading to biodiversity loss, destruction of ecosystems, and zoonotic spillover; the interconnected relationship between climate change and deforestation is highlighted and explored. Furthermore, this study provides policy recommendations, potential solutions and adaptive measures to be implemented, including sustainable living and increased government involvement.
References
Africa: Resources. (n.d.). https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/africa-resources/
An inside look at the beauty and benefits of mangroves. (2023, July 25). United Nations Environment Program. https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/inside-look-beauty-and-benefits-mangroves
Butler, R. (2020, March 22). Impact of deforestation - soil erosion. Mongabay.com. https://rainforests.mongabay.com/0903.htm
Carugati, L., Gatto, B., Rastelli, E., Lo Martire, M., Coral, C., Greco, S., & Danovaro, R. (2018). Impact of mangrove forests degradation on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Scientific Reports, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-31683-0
Carbon storage by Urban Forests (U.S. National Park Service). (n.d.). https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/uerla-trees-carbon-storage.htm#:~:text=Trees%20reduce%20the%20amount%20of,and%20health%20of%20the%20trees.
Chronic land degradation: UN offers stark warnings and practical remedies in Global Land Outlook 2. (2022, April 6). United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. https://www.unccd.int/news-stories/press-releases/chronic-land-degradation-un-offers-stark-warnings-and-practical
Clark, M. (2012). Deforestation in Madagascar: consequences of population growth and unsustainable agricultural processes. In Global Majority E-Journal: Vol. Vol. 3 (Issue No. 1, pp. 61–71). https://www.american.edu/cas/economics/ejournal/upload/clark_accessible.pdf
Commission for Environmental Cooperation, & Ize, I. (2014). Burning agricultural waste: a source of dioxins (p. 6) [Fact sheet]. Commission for Environmental Cooperation. http://www.cec.org/files/documents/publications/11405-la-quema-de-residuos-agr-colas-es-una-fuente-de-dioxinas-en.pdf
Commission on Audit. (2019). Performance Audit report. https://www.intosai.org/fileadmin/downloads/focus_areas/SDG_atlas_reports/Philippines/Philippines_2019_E_15_FuRep_NGP.pdf
Data, M. N. (n.d.). Deforestation | My NASA data. My NASA Data. https://mynasadata.larc.nasa.gov/basic-page/deforestation
Davis, J. (2022, November 9). Destruction of forests and grasslands is biggest cause of biodiversity loss. Natural History Museum. https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/news/2022/november/destruction-forests-and-grasslands-biggest-cause-of-biodiversity-loss.html
Deforestation and Forest Degradation. (2023). World Wildlife Fund. https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/deforestation-and-forest-degradation
Documentation:Open Case Studies/FRST522/Illegal logging in the Philippines - UBC Wiki. (n.d.-c). https://wiki.ubc.ca/Documentation:Open_Case_Studies/FRST522/Illegal_Logging_in_The_Philippines
Dubow, A. Z. (2024, March 16). Somalia needs its trees to restore landscapes and livelihoods. World Bank Blogs. https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/africacan/somalia-needs-its-trees-restore-landscapes-and-livelihoods
Ellwanger, J. H., & Chies, J. a. B. (2021). Zoonotic spillover: Understanding basic aspects for better prevention. Genetics and Molecular Biology, 44(1 suppl 1). https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-4685-gmb-2020-0355
Estrada-Peña, A., Ostfeld, R. S., Peterson, A. T., Poulin, R., & De La Fuente, J. (2014). Effects of environmental change on zoonotic disease risk: an ecological primer. Trends in Parasitology, 30(4), 205–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2014.02.003
Facts about the nature crisis. (n.d.). UNEP - UN Environment Programme. https://www.unep.org/facts-about-nature-crisis?gclid=CjwKCAjw7oeqBhBwEiwALyHLM2CLccw2_9WmVkJLgbyx0B4TbyzC4oOFF8FqUE2S3UaQzSVLCe5t9BoCGNsQAvD_BwE
Gatarić, D., Đerčan, B., Živković, M. B., Ostojić, M., Manojlović, S., Sibinović, M., Lukić, T., Jeftić, M., Lutovac, M., & Lutovac, M. (2022). Can depopulation stop deforestation? The impact of demographic movement on forest cover changes in the settlements of the South Banat District (Serbia). Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.897201
Gibbs, D. (n.d.). By the Numbers: The Value of Tropical Forests in the Climate Change Equation. World Resources Institute. https://www.wri.org/insights/numbers-value-tropical-forests-climate-change-equation
Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020. (2020). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/3/ca9825en/ca9825en.pdf
Ilagan, K., & Ilagan, K. (2021, May 12). 7M hectares of Philippine land are forested — and that’s bad news. PCIJ.org. https://pcij.org/article/5828/the-philippines-has-7m-hectares-of-forests-why-thats-bad-news
Inicio. (n.d.). https://wwf.panda.org/es/?uProjectID=MG0933
Land degradation. (2022, May 13). Global Environment Facility. https://www.thegef.org/what-we-do/topics/land-degradation#:~:text=Land%20degradation%E2%80%94the%20deterioration%20or,of%20biodiversity%20and%20ecosystem%20services.
Long, J. B., & Giri, C. (2011). Mapping the Philippines’ mangrove forests using Landsat imagery. Sensors, 11(3), 2972–2981. https://doi.org/10.3390/s110302972
Keesing, F., Belden, L. K., Daszak, P., Dobson, A., Harvell, C. D., Holt, R. D., Hudson, P., Jolles, A., Jones, K. E., Mitchell, C. E., Myers, S. S., Bogich, T., & Ostfeld, R. S. (2010). Impacts of biodiversity on the emergence and transmission of infectious diseases. Nature, 468(7324), 647–652. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09575
Keesing, F., & Ostfeld, R. S. (2021). Impacts of biodiversity and biodiversity loss on zoonotic diseases. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 118(17). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2023540118
Kulkarni. (2022, September 27). Biodiversity Loss Can Increase the Spread of Zoonotic Diseases. Harvard University. https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2022/biodiversity-loss-can-increase-the-spread-of-zoonotic-diseases/#:~:text=Biodiversity%20is%20a%20measure%20of,disease%20spilling%20over%20to%20humans.
Land-based solutions offer a key opportunity for climate mitigation. (2022, April 4). United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. https://www.unccd.int/news-stories/stories/land-based-solutions-offer-key-opportunity-climate-mitigation
Mramstead. (2019, September 18). Learn the effects of deforestation. WWF. https://www.wwf.org.uk/learn/effects-of/deforestation
Murray, K. A., & Daszak, P. (2013). Human ecology in pathogenic landscapes: two hypotheses on how land use change drives viral emergence. Current Opinion in Virology, 3(1), 79–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coviro.2013.01.006
Nunez, C. (2022, December 7). Why deforestation matters—and what we can do to stop it.
Environment. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/deforestation
Our impact | Slash and Burn Agriculture | EcoLogic Development Fund. (n.d.). EcoLogic. https://www.ecologic.org/our-impact/challenges/slash-and-burn-agriculture#:~:text=Back%20to%20Top,layer%20to%20help%20fertilize%20crops.
Philippines Population Growth Rate Data from 1880-2024 | Data | Demographics on World Economics. (n.d.-c). World Economics. https://www.worldeconomics.com/Demographics/Population-Annual-Growth-Rate/Philippines.aspx
Population dynamics. (2021b, June 11). UNFPA Philippines. https://philippines.unfpa.org/en/topics/population-dynamics-5#:~:text=Data%20from%20the%20Philippine%20Statistics,three%20babies%20born%20per%20minute.
Population Matters. (2024, July 23). Biodiversity - population matters. https://populationmatters.org/biodiversity/?gclid=CjwKCAjw7oeqBhBwEiwALyHLM1u3PAa32-bwZCBE4toBNqxhNPHA16V-EySvwqUZX74UWjrak3jf6xoCzDEQAvD_BwE
Rahman, M. T., Sobur, M. A., Islam, M. S., Ievy, S., Hossain, M. J., Zowalaty, M. E. E., Rahman, A. T., & Ashour, H. M. (2020). Zoonotic Diseases: Etiology, impact, and control. Microorganisms, 8(9), 1405. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8091405
Raygorodetsky, G. (2016, March 8). These farmers slash and burn Forests—But in a good way. Science. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/160303-thailand-farmers-slash-and-burn-forests-climate-environment
Rulli, M. C., Santini, M., Hayman, D. T. S., & D’Odorico, P. (2017). The nexus between forest fragmentation in Africa and Ebola virus disease outbreaks. Scientific Reports, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep41613
Sasmito, S. D., Basyuni, M., Kridalaksana, A., Saragi-Sasmito, M. F., Lovelock, C. E., & Murdiyarso, D. (2023). Challenges and opportunities for achieving Sustainable Development Goals through restoration of Indonesia’s mangroves. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 7(1), 62–70. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-022-01926-5
Shifting forest management to local control may reduce deforestation, without payments to anyone. (n.d.). 3ie. https://www.3ieimpact.org/blogs/shifting-forest-management-local-control-may-reduce-deforestation-without-payments-anyone
SITNFlash. (2022, October 2). Biodiversity loss can increase the spread of zoonotic diseases. Science in the News. https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2022/biodiversity-loss-can-increase-the-spread-of-zoonotic-diseases/
Tajudeen, Y. A., Oladunjoye, I. O., Bajinka, O., & Oladipo, H. J. (2022b). Zoonotic spillover in an era of rapid deforestation of tropical areas and unprecedented wildlife trafficking: into the wild. Challenges, 13(2), 41. https://doi.org/10.3390/challe13020041
Teresia, A. (2023, June 26). Indonesia cites deforestation decline from stricter controls. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/indonesia-cites-deforestation-decline-stricter-controls-2023-06-26/
The Elements of Biodiversity. (n.d.). https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/biodiversity/elements_of_biodiversity/#:~:text=Greater%20biodiversity%20in%20ecosystems%2C%20species,%2C%20disease%2C%20and%20climate%20change.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998, July 20). Slash-and-burn agriculture | Definition, Effects, Deforestation, & Impacts. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/slash-and-burn-agriculture
The State of Mangroves in Somalia: Insights from satellite data. (2023, July 26). Institute of Climate and Environment. https://ice.simad.edu.so/2023/07/26/the-state-of-mangroves-in-somalia-insights-from-satellite-data/
United Nations. (n.d.). Land - the planet’s carbon sink | United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/science/climate-issues/land#:~:text=Land%20and%20climate%20change&text=It%20decreases%20the%20soil's%20ability,human%2Dinduced%20greenhouse%20gas%20emissions.
United Nations. (n.d.-b). The ocean – the world’s greatest ally against climate change | United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/science/climate-issues/ocean
United Nations Development Program. (2023). THE JOINT PROGRAMME FOR SUSTAINABLE CHARCOAL REDUCTION AND ALTERNATIVE LIVELIHOODS. UNDP. https://www.undp.org/somalia/projects/joint-programme-sustainable-charcoal-reduction-and-alternative-livelihoods
United Nations Environment Programme. (n.d.-c). Deforestation in Borneo is slowing, but regulation remains key. UNEP. https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/deforestation-borneo-slowing-regulation-remains-key
United Nations Environment Programme. (n.d.-c). How social forestry and private investments can save Indonesia’s forests. UNEP. https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/how-social-forestry-and-private-investments-can-save-indonesias-forests#:~:text=From%202021%20to%202022%2C%20the,jobs%20and%20earn%20foreign%20exchange.
United Nations Environment Program. (n.d.). Mangrove Forests. https://www.unep.org/topics/ocean-seas-and-coasts/blue-ecosystems/mangrove-forests
United Nations Environment Programme. (n.d.-d). Somalia attempts to revive lands blighted by deforestation. UNEP. https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/somalia-attempts-revive-lands-blighted-deforestation
United Nations Environment Programme. (n.d.-e). Toxic blaze: the true cost of crop burning. UNEP. https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/toxic-blaze-true-cost-crop-burning
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2011). BLACK CARBON RESEARCH AND FUTURE STRATEGIES. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research And Development. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2013-12/documents/black-carbon-fact-sheet_0.pdf
United Nations Environment Programme. (n.d.-c). How innovative finance is helping to protect Indonesia’s forests. UNEP. https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/how-innovative-finance-helping-protect-indonesias-forests
UNEP Global Environmental Alert Service. (2011). Oil palm plantations: threats and opportunities for tropical ecosystems. In UNEP Global Environmental Alert Service. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/32263/OPP.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
UNESCO. Mangrove Ecosystems of Somalia. (2022). https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000382236
Villarroel, P. M. S., Gumpangseth, N., Songhong, T., Yainoy, S., Monteil, A., Leaungwutiwong, P., Missé, D., & Wichit, S. (2023). Emerging and re-emerging zoonotic viral diseases in Southeast Asia: One Health challenge. Frontiers in Public Health, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1141483
Vizzuality. (n.d.-a). Madagascar Interactive Forest Map & Tree Cover Change Data | GFW. https://www.globalforestwatch.org/map/country/MDG/?mainMap=eyJzaG93QW5hbHlzaXMiOnRydWV9&map=eyJjZW50ZXIiOnsibGF0IjotMjYuODc1MjcxMzQ4MDI1MDQ1LCJsbmciOjE3LjQ4ODUzNzcxMzg2ODgwNX0sImNhbkJvdW5kIjpmYWxzZX0%3D&mapMenu=eyJtZW51U2VjdGlvbiI6ImFuYWx5c2lzIn0%3D&mapPrompts=eyJvcGVuIjp0cnVlLCJzdGVwc0tleSI6InN1YnNjcmliZVRvQXJlYSJ9
Vizzuality. (n.d.). Philippines Deforestation Rates & Statistics | GFW. https://www.globalforestwatch.org/dashboards/country/PHL/?category=forest-change&location=WyJjb3VudHJ5IiwiUEhMIl0%3D&scrollTo=net-change
Wcmc. (n.d.). Earth’s biodiversity depends on the world’s forests - UNEP-WCMC. UNEP-WCMC. https://www.unep-wcmc.org/en/news/earths-biodiversity-depends-on-the-worlds-forests
What is carbon sequestration? | U.S. Geological Survey. (2019, March 22). https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-carbon-sequestration#:~:text=Carbon%20sequestration%20is%20the%20process,carbon%20sequestration%3A%20geologic%20and%20biologic.
What is the carbon cycle? (n.d.). https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/carbon-cycle.html#transcript
What is the role of deforestation in climate change and how can “Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation” (REDD+) help? (2023, February 10). Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment. https://www.lse.ac.uk/granthaminstitute/explainers/whats-redd-and-will-it-help-tackle-climate-change/#:~:text=As%20a%20result%20of%20deforestation,carbon%20source%EF%BB%BF%20by%20scientists.
Why do forests matter? (n.d.). UNEP - UN Environment Programme. https://www.unep.org/explore-topics/forests/why-do-forests-matter
Wolosin, M., & Harris, N. (2018). TROPICAL FORESTS AND CLIMATE CHANGE: THE LATEST SCIENCE. World Resources Institute, Working Paper. World Resources Institute. https://wriorg.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/ending-tropical-deforestation-tropical-forests-climate-change.pdf
World Health Organization: WHO. (2021, August 23). Regenerating rainforests in Madagascar by listening to communities. https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/regenerating-rainforests-madagascar-listening-communities
World Health Organization: WHO. (2019, July 30). Air pollution. https://www.who.int/health-topics/air-pollution#tab=tab_1
Zimmer, K. (2019, November 22). Deforestation is leading to more infectious diseases in humans. Science. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/deforestation-leading-to-more-infectious-diseases-in-humans
Zúñiga-Sarango, W., Gaona, F. P., Reyes-Castillo, V., & Iñiguez-Armijos, C. (2020). Disrupting the Biodiversity–Ecosystem function relationship: Response of shredders and leaf breakdown to urbanization in Andean streams. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2020.592404
Downloads
Posted
Categories
License
Copyright (c) 2024 Maya Nagia
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.